Refugees, Migration and the Need for the Emergence of an Appropriate Moral Vision

In this essay I will discuss the problems that refugees and people who migrate. I will typically focus on South Africa and its people and in addition I will be supporting my suggestion that a new moral vision has to emerge by drawing on articles from various sources. First it is imperative that we have a clear understanding of what a Refugee is. â€Å"A Refugee by definition is a person who is outside their country of origin or habitual residence because they have suffered or fear persecution on account of race, religion, nationality† (Wikpedia).Now in South Africa one could say that we are basically the ‘Homeless Shelter’ of the African continent because of the high number of refugees and migrants that come to our shores annually. Local citizens however are far from pleased about this situation though. There is obviously a fear that along with the refugees come an increase in crime, job demands and they feel as if the refugees are steeling opportunities from them etc. This would be quite understandable if it were entirely true though.When refugees flee their home countries for various reasons, they do it with a hope, with a genuine belief that they will make a better life for not just themselves but for their families too. That to me sounds like they carry with them a vision for a good society, a vision that WE ALL should share. A new moral vision has to be brought forth. Refugees are people too. They deserve a chance at a better life, a chance to make something more of themselves, it is a basic human right and we as humans have to ensure that this is carried out.I envision a society where equal access to services and opportunities should be given, irrespective of where you’ve been or come from. I think what we need to see from government is a sort of reshuffling of ideas and strategies. They need to rethink the old ones and at the same time implement some new ones so refugees and migrants alike can have a fair shot at bettering thei r lives. The current situation is unacceptable and much is always said about wanting to build a good and equal society but too little has been done up until this point.We need to see some empathy and understanding from the local communities towards our African brothers and sisters. How would we feel if we were in their position? What would we do if we were exiled or had to flee for our lives? We as a people, as humans need to show compassion towards one another and not be the first to judge and point fingers. Refugees leave one hostile environment only to encounter another when they settle down here. It needs to be understood that these refugees and particularly migrants contribute to the economic growth and human development.As an added bonus they also enrich societies through cultural diversity, which helps create empathy and understanding amongst the communities. In a way migration helps some to realize their basic human rights. For example there is a group of Pakistani barbers i n my area, they make an honest living cutting hair, they pay rent and taxes just like every other South African and they are the nicest people you will ever meet. Their only intention in this country is to make enough money to send back to their poorer family members back home.Migrants can often be found doing the hard strenuous and often dangerous labor that the locals often try and avoid. Fact of the matter is that these migrants and refugees work much harder than the local citizens who blame apartheid for everything and expect everything to be handed to them as a result of it. We as a society, as humans need to catch a wake up. Rome wasn’t built in a day yes, but surely we can do something to change our train of thought towards this particular situation. Our sense of humanity needs to be EXPANDED.For some, migration is a positive and empowering experience, but for many they only face a life of discrimination, exploitation and even human rights violations. In order for this new moral vision for a good society to succeed the government and its citizens have to make promoting and protecting the human rights of all migrants one of its priorities. â€Å"Governments have obligations to ensure that xenophobic violence, racism and related intolerance against migrants and their communities have no place in their societies† (Navi Pillay) The way forward as I see it is to include these Migrants and refugees in elevant national action plans and strategies, like housing implementation and measures to counteract discriminatory and unfair treatment like xenophobia. Special committees and unions should also be set up specifically for migrant, migrant workers and refugees. Migration can be managed and tolerated by all whilst respecting human rights laws, ensuring a peaceful and better society for all. In conclusion I would like to end off with the statement that, all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights, and that everyone is entitled to a ll the rights and freedoms set forth therein, without distinction of any kind.And therefore it is only through ourselves that we can make the necessary changes to successfully implement the new vision(s) of a good society. Bibliography 1) Wikipedia http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Refugee 2) High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay: http://www. ohchr. org/EN/Issues/Migration/Pages/MigrationAndHumanRightsIndex. aspx 3) Conradie, E. M. (2006). Chapter 2: Pp. 19. In: Morality as a Way of Life: An Introduction to Ethical Theory. Stellenbosch: SUN PreSS.

Car Insurance Database

This task is related to creation and update of database which is going to contain the data of an insurance company. The database is developed in MS-Access. In order to create the database in MS-Access, the first step is to create the database from file menu of the MS-Access and provide any suitable name (e. g. the name chosen for this project is vechicle_insurance). The next step is to use the query option and execute the queries one by one (the queries are available in this document).All the queries provided in the document are compatible with MS-Access. Six tables are created by the Data Definition Language (DDL) query and the data is inserted into the table by the insert query or Data Modification Language (DML). In addition to DDL & DML, browse, search and update queries are also provided in this document. In the following section, Data dictionary is provided which is a mapping of the fields with the data type.The Entity-relationship (ER) diagram is provided on a separate documen t which shows the relationship amongst all six table tables and how they are connected to each other. In the ER diagram, Id is primary key for each table. All the tables are normalized to 3rd form of the normalization. Data Dictionary There are six tables in vehicle insurance database. Each table contains certain number of fields. Each field gives the information of related table.

J.L. Mackie

J. L Mackie Introduction Mackie’s argument The proposed solution to be discussed and Mackie’s response to it is the claim that ‘evil is due to human free will’ and as such it cannot be attributed to God. Evil should instead be attributed to the free actions of individuals, the power of which has been endowed upon them by God. While it is acknowledged that there exists evil in the world, as a result of some human free will, it is claimed that freedom of will is a more valuable good than any resultant evil. Through God allowing such freedom, He has satisfied His ‘wholly good’ requirement. Creating men who always choose good Mackie’s first criticism of this solution is that if God was omnipotent and he created men so that they would favour choosing good over evil, why did he not create them such that they would always choose good? The obvious response to this claim is that to constrain man’s actions in such a way is to critically undermine freedom of the will; to demand that man always choose one way whether it be in the promotion of good or evil is still to control his will and deprive him of his freedom and autonomy. Paradox of Omnipotence Adequate solution For Mackie, an adequate solution is one that if adopted the initial problem does not arise for you, however the solution may have raised other problems. The only discussed solution that does not hold God responsible for evil in the world is the compatibilist approach to free will. Upon formulating this solution the two major issues are on the interpretation of omnipotence and freedom. Omnipotence has been revealed to be an almost meaningless term by way of the paradoxes that it gives rise to, such as the ability or inability of an omnipotent God to make rules or animals that restrict its own powers. The interpretation discussed and ultimately the proposal that gave rise to a compatibilist approach was that proposed by Mackie and so there is little that he could criticise about this part of the argument. Conclusion Mackie’s argument that God could have made men always choose good undermines the most valuable good which is freedom of the will. His claim that this implies that it must then be a logical necessity for man to choose wrong instead of good is not accurate, for it is sufficient to be a logical possibility for man to choose wrong. On this interpretation freedom is maintained, however the strongest objection arises with the omnipotence paradox. A resolution for this paradox can be reached using Mackie’s dichotomy of omnipotence. The resulting solution maintains God’s omnipotence and man’s free will and while there exist some issues as to the credibility of this interpretation of freedom, as described from a compatibilist perspective, these are ‘other problems’ and as such the solution can be classified as an adequate one.

Economyc Depression Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Economyc Depression - Research Paper Example Depression is also defined on the basis of two general rules: †¢ A decline in real GDP over and above 10%, or †¢ A recession constantly experienced for 2 or more years. These days, the term â€Å"Depression† is frequently associated with the Great Depression of the 1930’s, though the very term had been in use for quite long before then. History of Economic Depressions There have been many periods of long-drawn-out economic downfall in different countries/regions since 1945, but naming these as "depressions" is contentious. The most considerable worldwide economic crisis in the history after the Great Depression, the recession of late-2000s, has also been named as â€Å"Depression† at times, but this terminology is not in general use, even though economic researchers name them as â€Å"Great Recession†. The â€Å"Great Depression† The Great Depression was an event which started on October 1929, when the stock market in the United States dropped swiftly. More than hundreds of financiers and investors drowned their capital and got bankrupted, even the history writes them to be raised to the grounds and were compelled to live on the streets, time and again going without food. These circumstances resulted to the Great Depression. In modern times, the resulting period of ten years was categorized as the most terrible time-span with extremely high unemployment rate and near to the ground business activity. Almost all of the industries, business hubs, factories, shopping stores and trade centers left numerous Americans out of work, rendered homelessness, and caused people to live without food. A gigantic number of people were depending on the State administration or else charity organizations, to provide them with food (Shannon 1960; Parker 2007). Almost all countries were severely affected by this massive and worst economic downfall and came forward as facing â€Å"The Great Depression† of 1930’s. It led to a sharp turndown in world trade as each country tried to protect their industries. The Depression led to political turmoil in many countries such as Germany where poor economic conditions led to the rise of Hitler. Franklin D. Roosevelt was  elected President  in 1932 and his 'new deal' reforms gave the government more power and helped slow the depression.  By the time, as nations enhanced the production of weapons and other war equipments, the Great depression began to stroll towards an end. The increasing production of war materials led to open job opportunities for masses and resulted in the injection of big sums of money back into the business flow. Many of the factors resulted into the great depression; one of them being the lack of diversification in the economy of United States. The overall economic success of America used to be dependent on very few industries; for instance

U.K. Energy Sustainability Public Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

U.K. Energy Sustainability Public Policy - Essay Example The intention of this study is Public Policy as a set of rules, or guides promulgated by governments to ensure that the branches of government all deal with issues in a similar, consistent manner, according to the laws and constitution of the particular country. Inevitably, public policy is not simply decided by an elected government: it is influenced and changed by pressure, or lobby groups, by organisations within the society or community, and by the public at large and its perceptions. While public policy can be confined to domestic policy and thought, the increasingly globalising world means that it is not only internal pressure which is brought to bear on government and their policy formulation, but also international trends and necessities. Thus, although this essay will focus on the Energy Policy of the UK Government, some consideration must necessarily be given to the influence that international trends in energy policy have on the UK. The Department of Energy and Climate Cha nge formulates public policy in this area and relies on two pieces of legislation: the Energy White Paper of 2007, and the Low carbon Transition Plan of July 2009. Four key policy goals were tabled in the 2007 paper: †¢ The UK should be on a path to cut carbon dioxide emissions by 60%, and significant cuts should be evident by 2020; †¢ The UK should ensure reliable energy supplies; †¢ Competitive markets in the UK and internationally should be promoted, so that sustainable economic growth is possible, and productivity can improve;   and Every home in the UK should be adequately and affordably heated. Additional considerations are highlighted in the policy, among them the production, distribution and use of electricity, fuel used for transport, and heating. The longer-term intention is to contribute to the worldwide fight against climate change, and to ensure secure, clean and affordable energy for the UK itself. By 2008, the policy included emphasis on the energy ma rket, offshore gas and oil, and investment in nuclear power. Direct control of energy in the UK economy now does not lie with the government, after the liberalisation and nationalisation policies of the 1980s and 1990s, and while UK energy is recognised as being highly reliable in delivery to the population (Bowlby, 2011, website) there are a significant number of UK citizens in fuel poverty. Yet,

Research paper summary Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summary - Research Paper Example This is largely due to the fact that adults and experts alike have dominated the portrayal of this message labeling teenagers and their behavior as either good or bad without paying any attention to their point of view. With growing technology and increasing economy, internet usage is becoming an integral and common part of any society with both adults and teenagers going online. Two surveys conducted in 1997and 2001 by the U.S. and Canada respectively, concluded that adults actually spend more time on the internet than teenagers. This was confirmed by China Internet Network Information Center who conducted their own survey and revealed that 66.3% of internet users were between the ages of 20-35 where as teenagers only made up 17.2% (Zhiyong 2007). However society feels that it is easier to blame the teenagers and their internet addiction for the prevailing problems of drugs, sex etc. Instead of hearing their voices and acknowledging that the problem of addiction exists in both adults and teenagers, experts mold the public opinion against the youth often leading to their low self esteem and confidence. Dick Hebdige summed this up very nicely when he stated "In our society, youth is present only whe n its presence is a problem, or is regarded as a problem† (Zhiyong 2007). It is easy to label the teenagers as bad and ignore why they get hooked on the internet in the first place. Internet offers adolescents an escape from their every day stressful lives and allows them to interact freely with others, play games, and read information online complete with privacy and increased comfort. This freedom from pressure and even parents for a little while is misunderstood as being lazy and displaying improper behavior by the adults. This often leads adults to feel that the teenagers are undermining their authority. For, internet isn’t something reserved

Q1) list and elaborate on the factors that will be affecting the Essay - 1

Q1) list and elaborate on the factors that will be affecting the demand for the following products in the next several years. do you think these factors will ca - Essay Example Additionally, a fax arrives immediately and, more importantly, delivery is instantly confirmed. According to Davidson Consulting, more than 70 million fax machines are in operation today with the demand for fax capability growing rapidly--at a compounded annual growth rate of almost 19% worldwide. While the demand for traditional SLR cameras and films is slated to go down because of the rise in digital photography, the demand for high-end and sophisticated digital cameras is going to increase in the next few years. Since internet and paperless photography is on the rise, the demand for films might come down in the following years. A decade ago, when video and set top boxes were not heard of, video cassettes and CDs were very much in demand. Today, however with the rising popularity of tools and applications like YouTube and video-on-demand, video rented from retail outlets might see a negative growth in the coming years. With the convergence of global businesses, people across the globe are hungry for news and facts affecting global business. The demand for specialized TV programs is increasing. Not everyone is interested in every sitcom. Tastes are getting more and more specialized and people more ready to shell our more for something they feel is important to them. Thus, the demand for "pay-per-view" television programmes will be going up in the coming years. Section B Q2) list and elaborate on the factors that will be affecting the supply for the following products in the next several years. do you think these factors will cause the supply to increase or decrease (draw the diagrams to show the impact) g. Crude oilFactors affecting supply of crude oil: 1. Global reserves of fossil fuels: As the reserves of crude oil get depleted with indiscriminate drilling and use of crude oil as a source of fuel, the supply of crude oil is going to come down. 2. International relations and trade With the global superpowers trying to assert their power over the oil-rich nations of the world, things might come to a stand still and the supply of crude oil from the oil-rich countries might go down. 3. Increase in use of alternate sources of fuel: As alternate sources of energy, solar , tidal, wind, hydel, organic and chemical forms of energy gain popularity, the supply of crude oil might increase in the near future. h. Computer memory chips With the world going digital and every small thing in the world getting more and more dependent on computers, definitely, the demand for computer memory chips is going to increase. These chips will replace books and note-books in schools, paper in business and industrial transactions, games and entertainment and every other field of human interaction. i. Hotel rooms As the world goes global and distances cease to exist, the demand for travel and hotel rooms is going to incr

Job Order Costing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Job Order Costing - Essay Example Job order costing is applicable to job order work in factories, workshops, and repair shops, as well as to work by builder, construction, engineers, and printers. It is a highly useful procedure, and allows for these various different occupations to do their work efficiently and at the costs that were predetermined to go hand in hand with each job. In job order costing, the key is that the work is done to the customer's specifications. As a result, each job tends to be different in nature. Even if the job may seem to be exactly the same at first, often a customer will want a worker to do something different than what was originally thought to be done. For example, â€Å"job order costing is used for construction projects, government contracts, shipbuilding, automobile repair, job printing, textbooks, toys, wood furniture, office machines, caskets, machine tools, and luggage. Accumulating the cost of professional services (e.g., lawyers, doctors and CPA's), also fall into this category† (MAAW, â€Å"What Is a Cost Accounting System?†). Job Order Costing is used by companies where products or services are identifiable by individual units or batches—auto repair, tax return preparation, case in an attorney’s office, ship construction, etc. The costs attributable to a particular job are assigned directly to it. Difference between Job order Costing and Process Costing: "In Job Order Costing, Unit Cost computed by job. Many jobs are worked during the period. Costs are accumulated by individual jobs. Costs are traced and applied to individual jobs in Job order cost system. In Process Costing, Costs are accumulated by departments. Unit costs are computed by department. A single product is produced for a long period of time Costs are traced and applied to departments in a Process Cost system." (McGraw-Hill/Irwin, Chapter4, "Systems Design: Process Costing") Primary Objective in Job order Costing: When a job produces a specific quantity for inventory, job order costing permits the computation of a unit cost for inventory costing purposes. When jobs are performed on the basis of customer specifications, job order costing permits the computation of a profit or loss on each order. Since costs are revealed as an order goes through production, these costs may be compared with estimates which were made when an order was taken. Job order costing thereby provides opportunities for controlling costs. It allows the person to help try to keep costs as stable as they can, yet still find a way to make a profit. This ability helps keep both the worker and customer happy, and helps promote a better relationship between the contractor or professional and the person who is paying for the work. This can also help keep costs low, because the customer does not need to pay for services they do not need, even if the professional is capable of doing them. This way, the customer only needs to pay fo r exactly what they need from the professional. When job order or process cost methods are used, costs must be accumulated for control purposes according to the unit in which the product cost is to be stated. For example, Coal is measured by the ton, chemicals by the gallon, and lumber by board feet. Products, such as machines, automobiles and shoes are measured either by the individual unit or by a multiple

Public Administration and business management Research Paper

Public Administration and business management - Research Paper Example They are involved in the business of making policies and rules and regulations through which they manage the private and the public sector. Businesses have to ensure that they abide by the policies set by the public administrators in order to ensure that they do not cross the line and fall in the category of anti-social organizations (Denhardt, 2011, p.51). Business management even involves the facet of managing people but they can only control behavior of those people that are working within the organizations and set policies to govern these individuals (Denhardt, 2009, p.5). Those students who are involved in the study of public management learn about managing the macro level of the common population and those individuals who are enrolled in business management courses are involved in the learning of how to manage people at a micro level. Another reason due to which business management cannot be referred to as public administration is that the rules of business management are obtai ned from the policies and guidelines created by the people who are related to the field of public

Therapeutic Landscape Essay Example for Free

Therapeutic Landscape Essay The article in particular mirrors the transformation and redefinition of human’s needs through this continuous tide of human evolution. Brought by the shining glimpse of modernity it points out the aspect of human living, in particular with the rising importance and role of the landscape where people choose or actually reside. Cited in the article numerous times, the view of people regarding the landscape where they live in has become very relevant on how they view themselves and others. Brought by the weight of modernity, good landscape image in terms of availability of economic means together with a healthy environment, have become a social factor in itself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another strength of the article, it attacks in particular the view of how a positive landscape should integrate the main aspect of health, and how communities within a particular region could be divided and actually co exist in two main groups with different views of their landscape, one that is health affirming and the other as health denying. The importance of image on landscape, developed a strong societal gap that often leads to a more conflicting and negative view on living.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I believe the purpose of this paper showed was to be able to explain why there is a larger and more important weight that landscape holds in molding perceptions in communities. It also aims to explain how societies or communities adapt to such changes and perceptions where certain psychological aspects of the community sink in. Particularly with the citation in on p.2 wherein as â€Å"perception of activities change, the place in which they occur may be stigmatized.† Before industrialization was an economic booster, it is a very demanded and needed activity, but as time progressed, the products and wastes have become alarming that the city was stigmatized to be ‘unhealthy.’ The importance of redefining or masking that perception has become important because people who actually live in those places are stigmatized. Outsiders perceive them to abhor and allow the lifestyle because they actually live there. It is quite logical if one might think of it. It’s like being associated with friends, â€Å"tell me who your friends are and I’ll tell you who you are.† It may not necessarily true and concise, but nothing beats the first perception. However certain assumptions like that do not result from baseless proof. Just what the paper stated on what industrialization stood for the people before and what it stood now. People are associated with images, that is why the landscape, as part of their preference or lifestyle, is greatly put into consideration.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Given certain notations wherein an area is stigmatized, in this case the North End, it widens the societal gap by actually alienating that particular area therefore providing slim access to economic and social development for people who reside there. Being in one community, the article clearly emphasized how divided a certain community might be. The others, trying very hard to mask and redefine the image of the industrialized Hamilton, by exhausting efforts to improve health/landscape, at the same time making North End a certain scapegoat of housing the bad or unhealthy side of Hamilton. The paper had extensive evidence to state that through various interviews from residents.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The efforts of creating such a positive image just widen the societal gap and psychological behavior of people. At the end image has become very important without attacking the core of its decline, instead it creates a more divided community.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I agree that the idea that Hamilton needs to strike a good impression in the outside world is very contrasting to the method of redefining a healthy landscape. The failure to accept the ills of the community by masking it and actually resulting to division and misconception to promote better and more sound solution to their societal problems.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   We have been witnesses of what modernity has evolved our minds and perceptions of good and bad, healthy and unhealthy. The fact that we exist in communities, we take pride in images and perception. Status has become very important in us, that is why we tend to study and label every aspect of our lives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The particular aspect that alarms me is the never ending circle of division that exists in Hamilton. People who dwell in ‘healthier’ landscapes pride themselves and the city and affirming the positive side of the community, at the expense of using the North End part as a certain scapegoat, therefore alienating that particular place. Instead of reaching out and including the place in development, it has been perceived to be a place that makes Hamilton quite unattractive. Certain alienations have made people at North End are influenced to think of their status and support from their neighborhoods who also feel the same way. The division entails more gaps in certain communities, therefore their view of healthy or unhealthy environment seem skewed as a whole.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Since it’s a very pending issue, nobody seem to think of its importance, but now we tend to assess our own communities and try to assess how truly ‘healthy’ it is. Since Hamilton is a live case, it is not hard to imagine finding other communities with Hamilton’s similar example.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It has become an important educator in terms of perceiving a certain ‘healthy landscape’ and how it plays a big role in the psychological perceptions of people. It made me realize how important image is and how it maneuvers society.

Radiography in Ureterocele

Radiography in Ureterocele Ashley Norman One day wanting to be a mother, I can imagine that all you pray for is there to be no complications throughout the pregnancy. Walking into a doctor’s appointment for a routine ultrasound to check the baby and having the doctor say, â€Å"ma’am your baby has hydronephrosis and an ureterocele,† would be a very scary moment of the unknown. Because ureteroceles only occurs in about one of every 1,000 births, there would be many questions such as: what is an ureterocele, what tests will have to be done and what treatments will need to be taken (UCSF). As this became a reality to a friend of mine, all the questions must be answered. The field of radiography has different modalities and studies that use medical imaging that can diagnose and watch the condition of Ureteroceles. At nineteen weeks pregnant, Emily was told that Trent had severe hydronephrosis in his right kidney found on the ultrasound (Davis, 2014). One might be wondering, what is hydronephrosis? It is the distention of renal pelvis and calyces with urine (Eugene D. Frank, 2012). Another ultrasound done at twenty-four weeks showed the ureterocele. An ureterocele, a congenital condition, is a ballooning of the lower end of the ureter inside the bladder (Boston) (Philadelphia). This may cause part or the entire stream of urine from flowing freely into the bladder. It may also cause the backward flow of urine into the child’s kidney causing vesicoureteral reflux or VUR (Philadelphia). Ureteroceles are ten times more common in girls than boys, occur most often in Caucasians and vary in size (Boston). Trent is Caucasian, though he is a more rare case being a boy. Like Trent’s, the ureterocele is continued to be seen on the ultrasounds throughout the pregnancy. As determined, Ureteroceles are most commonly found from an ultrasound before the child is born or within a few days after birth. They are also used often to manage babies with hydronephrosis (Philadelphia) (UCSF). This modality of radiology called ultrasound or sonography is a noninvasive procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to produce echoes within the body. The transducer sends and receives sound wave signals as it is moved over the surface of the body producing an image in real-time on a computer monitor. Learning the due date, revealing the presence of more than one child and the sex of the child or children are all familiar things that ultrasound determines. Conditions affecting the organs and tissues of the body such as the heart, gallbladder, liver, kidneys, and bladder may be determined by the use of sonography (WebMD Ultrasound). A renal bladder ultrasound is often used because its spotlight is specifically on the kidneys and bladder (Boston). The severity of the babies’ hydronephrosis and the presence of an ureterocele is valuable information shown on the RUS for the doctor. At about 16 or a18 months old, Trent had an RUS before he had surgery. Post surgery, Trent had another RUS to check the status (Davis, 2014). Again, ultrasound or sonography is the most common modality used to find Ureteroceles. Another study done to identify or evaluate the ureterocele is a voiding cysto-urethrogram or VCUG. The child will have a catheter placed through the urethra into the bladder (Philadelphia). A contrast material will be introduced against the normal flow or retrograde (Eugene D. Frank, 2012). As the contrast is filling the bladder fluoroscopy will be used to take pictures. Fluoroscopy is a type of medical imaging that is real-time showing continuous x-ray images on a monitor (FDA). Pictures will continue to be taken until the bladder is full and then again as the child voids or urinates. The VCUG study is done to confirm if VUR, reflux or backwash of urine into the ureter, is occurring because this would affect how the ureterocele is treated (UCSF). A VCUG was performed on Trent pre and post surgery (Davis, 2014). This procedure may be done more than once to continue to monitor the size and severity of the ureterocele along with any harm that may develop to the child’s kidneys. Nuclear medicine is another modality of radiography that â€Å"uses a special camera, gamma, to take pictures of tissues and organs in the body after a radioactive tracer, either radionuclide or radioisotope, is put in the vein in the arm and is absorbed by the tissues and organs. The radioactive tracer shows the activity and function of the tissues or organs† (WebMD Nuclear Medicine). A nuclear renal scan is done using nuclear medicine with one of two types of substances: DTPA or Mag3. Both are radiopharmaceuticals that may be used but very young children or someone with poor kidney functions will have better images if Mag3 is used (Nandurkar, 2009). The difference in function between the two kidneys may be measured along with the degree of blockage in the urinary system (Boston). Before surgery, a Mag3 scan was completed on Trent giving information on why the surgery was being performed and the severity (Davis, 2014). Using this modality of radiography, Nuclear Medicine, and its renal scanning test, ureteroceles may be identified and monitored. Finally, the modality of Magnetic Resonance Imaging or MRI may be used for ureteroceles. â€Å"MRI is a noninvasive diagnostic modality that does not use ionizing radiation.† The images on the computer monitor are provided by a powerful magnetic field and radio frequency pulses that are combined to produce a radio signal in the body that can be detected and processed electronically (Ehrlich, 2009). Although Trent has not had an MRI yet, when he does there will be very detailed pictures of the kidneys, ureters and bladder that can be taken and stored for diagnosis, monitoring and comparing of ureteroceles (Davis, 2014). The treatment of an ureterocele is dependent upon many factors such as the size, degree of obstruction, function of the kidney, presence of VUR and affects of the bladder. Although not all are helped by endoscopic surgery, it is one treatment that may be used to fix the ureterocele (Boston). Trent’s doctors at the Children’s Hospital in New Orleans chose this treatment. The endoscopic surgery is a minor procedure, no incisions made, which is usually done in an outpatient setting. A cystoscope, a lighted tube, is inserted into the urethral opening to see inside the bladder showing areas that may not show up well on X-ray images (Philadelphia). When the ureterocele is reached it will be punctured or popped, therefore relieving any obstruction. After the puncture, a VCUG is often performed to look for any reflux. Renal ultrasounds are also performed following the puncture to â€Å"ensure that any dilation has improved and that the ureterocele has gone away (UCSF).† Unfortunately, Trent was a case that the endoscopic surgery did not help (Davis, 2014). His mom and dad now have a waiting game to see if any further actions must be taken to try and solve his ureterocele. Through the field of radiology, different modalities and studies, Trent can be monitored and enjoy being a little boy, doing what little boys enjoy while his mom and dad trust the field of radiography and the advances that continue to keep their baby safe. Works Cited Boston, C. H. (n.d.). Ureterocele. Retrieved February 16, 2014, from Boston Childrens Hospital: http://www.childrenshospital.org/health-topics/conditions/ureterocele Davis, E. (2014, February). (A. Norman, Interviewer) Ehrlich, R. A. (2009). Patient Care in Radiography. Missouri. Eugene D. Frank, B. W. (2012). Merrills Atlas of Radiographic Positioning and Procedures. Missouri: Jeanne Olson. FDA. (n.d.). Medical X-Ray Imaging Fluoroscopy. Retrieved March 4, 2014, from FDA Gov: http://www.fda.gov/Radiation-EmittingProducts/RadiationEmittingProductsandProcedures/MedicalImaging/MedicalX-Rays/ucm115354.htm Nandurkar, M. M. (2009, May 01). Nuclear Medicine Renal Scan. Retrieved March 4, 2014, from Inside Radiology: http://www.insideradiology.com.au/pages/view.php?T_id=43#.UyHAJVBdW8A Philadelphia, T. C. (n.d.). Ureterocele. Retrieved February 16, 2014, from The Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia: http://www.chop.edu/healthinfo/ureterocele.html UCSF, D. o. (n.d.). Ureteroceles. Retrieved February 16, 2014, from University of California, Department of Urology: https://urology.ucsf.edu/patient-care/children/urinary-tract-obstruction/ureteroceles WebMD Nuclear Medicine, T. (n.d.). Nuclear Mediciine Scan. Retrieved March 4, 2014, from WebMD: http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/nuclear-medicine-scan-topic-overview WebMD Ultrasound, T. (n.d.). What is an Ultrasound? Retrieved February 16, 2014, from WebMD: http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-an-ultrasound

Theories on Multinational Companies

Theories on Multinational Companies 2.1.1. Introduction In the process of studying the existence, growth and business activities of multinational companies, various theoretical approaches have been developed in the past forty years, depending on the scholars` fields of specialization, perspective and objectives. It is particularly important to distinguish economic approaches to the study of multinationals, strategic management approaches, and finally, cultural approaches to the study of multinational companies. Furthermore, the second part of the literature review will be dedicated to the study of various kinds of spillovers which multinational companies create while operating in the given country, a subject which is of particular importance for the topic of this thesis. 2.1.2. Economic Approaches to the Study of Multinational Companies When reviewing the literature on multinational companies, it is evident that economists find themselves at the forefront of the research on multinational companies. According to Cantwell (1991: 17-18), they are approaching the topic from three perspectives: microeconomic (which deals with cross-border interactions of individual firms), mesoeconomic (which deals with the cross-border interactions of firms at the industry level), and macroeconomic (dealing with the growth and trend of multinationals at national and international level). All of these categories have one thing in common: they all tend to explain the existence of international production. The economic approaches to the study of international business have been dominant in the fields of microeconomics, industrial economics and macroeconomics. These include the theory of the firm by Coase (1937, 1987), as well as internalization theory by Buckley and Casson (1976) and Rugman (1980, 1980 and 1982). Other famous theories on multinational enterprises refer to markets and hierarchies approach by Williamson (1975, 1985), furthermore, market power approach or the theory of international operations by Hymer (1960, 1976), and the approaches of industrial organization by Bain (1959), Caves (1971, 1982), Hirsch (1976), Johnson (1970) and Lall (1980a). As a starting point for his research, Ronald Coase (1937) departed from the traditional microeconomic assumption which states that economic activity is determined freely by the price mechanism and that the economic system works itself. In practice this means that suppliers respond to demand changes, and buyers respond to supply changes through the open market system, which is viewed as an automatic, responsive process. According to him, opposed to the traditional thinking that the economic system is being coordinated by the price mechanisms, Coase argues: This coordination of the various factors of production is, however, normally carried out without the intervention of the price mechanism. As is evident, the amount of vertical integration, involving as it does the supersession of the price mechanism, varies greatly from industry to industry, and from firm to firm. It can, I think, be assumed that the distinguishing mark of the firm is the supersession of the price mechanism. (Coase, 1937 in Williamson and Winter 1991:20). Furthermore, Coase (in Williamson and Winter 1991:30) suggests that at the margin, the costs of organizing within the firm will be equal either to the costs of organizing in another firm or to the costs involved in leaving the transaction to be organized by the price mechanism. Even though the theory of Coase was predominantly meant for the domestic horizon, it later served as the bases of the internalization theory. The concept of internalization has its origins in the theory of industrial relations. Bain (1959) pursues the proposition that there will be possibilities of integration by the firm (acquiring and combining with supplier firms or customer firms) which, among others, have positive economies or savings in cost. Additionally, he stresses that atomistic market structures with unrestricted competition will tend to force or make automatic efficiency increasing integration, and likewise tend to deter inefficient integration. Bain further claims that no particular type of integration will be fully forced in an oligopolistic situation, but there should be a tendency for oligopolistic firms to integrate if there are other advantages (other than costs) to the integration that will not result in inefficiency. He asserts that even inefficient integration is possible if it has offsetting advantages (Bain, 1959:168). Hirsch (1976) suggested that the optimal choice between international trade and international production is determined by the firms specific knowledge advantages and other intangible assets. Rugman (1981: 45) uses Hirsch`s model and interprets it as one that treats knowledge as an intermediate product which is internalized in the structure of multinational enterprise. These ownership advantages impose effective barriers to entry to rival firms. They enable temporary monopoly power to the company by allowing it a possibility to earn profit above the prevailing industry level. Hirsch (1976) states that the greater ownership advantages are, the more economics of production and marketing prefer foreign location and therefore foreign direct investment. Authors Buckley and Casson (1976:33) give their significant contribution to the theory of internalization based upon three presumptions: Companies maximize profit in a world of imperfect markets The imperfect nature of the markets for intermediate goods urges companies to avoid them by creating internal markets Internalization of markets across national boundaries creates multinational enterprises. The main thesis of Buckley and Casson is that attempts to improve the organization of these markets have led to a radical change in business organization, one aspect of which is the growth of MNE. Therefore, a multinational enterprise is perceived as an instrument used for raising efficiency by replacing foreign markets via exploitation of internalization advantages within the framework of transaction costs and exchange. Furthermore, they insist that an MNE is created whenever markets are internalized across national boundaries, and a market in an intermediate good will be internalized only in the situation when benefits outweigh costs. The authors stress the following: Vertical integration of production will give rise to MNEs because different stages of production require different combinations of factors and are therefore best carried out in different countries, according to factor availability and the law of comparative advantage. Moreover, there is a special reason for believing that internalization of the knowledge market will generate a high degree of multinationality among forms (Buckley and Casson 1976, 44-45). Theory of internalization has been additionally advanced by Rugman (1981:28) who pointed out that internalization is the process of making a market within a company. He suggests that company creates an internal market as a replacement for the missing regular (or external) market and in order to overcome the problems of allocation and distribution by the use of administrative fiat. Furthermore, he states that the internal prices (or transfer prices) of the firm lubricate the organization as a potential (but unrealized) regular market. In reality, the internalization theory pursued by Rugman tries to explain the reasons why a company wishes to go into international production across national boundaries. On this particular subject, Rugman (1981:29) states the following: A firm will wish to locate itself abroad to gain access to foreign markets. It will choose foreign direct investment when exporting and licensing are unreliable, inferior, or more costly options. Internalization is a device for keeping a firm specific advantage over a worldwide scale. The MNE is an organization able to monitor the use of its firm specific advantage in knowledge by establishing abroad miniature replicas of the parent firm. These foreign subsidiaries supply each foreign market and permit the MNE to segment national markets and use price discrimination to maximize worldwide profits. Internalization allows the multinational to control its affiliates and to regulate the use of the system specific advantage on a global basis. The concept of creating an internal market within a company in order to avoid relatively high transaction costs of the market system is additionally researched by Williamson (1975). In his work Markets and Hierarchies, he suggests that the economics of transaction costs and in general, new institutional economics explains why companies choose to conduct hierarchical expansion instead of conducting economic activity through the market mechanisms. Williamson states that multinational enterprises choose vertical integration or hierarchy for various reasons: in comparison to the market system, hierarchy extends boundaries on rationality by allowing the specialization of decision-making and economizing on communication expense. Furthermore, hierarchy permits additional incentives and control measures to discipline opportunism. Interdependent units are adapted to uncertainties and unexpected events more easily. Hierarchy also offers more constitutional possibilities for effective monitoring and auditing jobs, which consequently narrows down the information gap which appears in the case of autonomous agents. Finally, hierarchy provides a less calculative exchange atmosphere or environment (Williamson 1975:258). Scholars like Kay (1991) and Lee (1994) acknowledged Williamsons emphasis on asset specificity as a key environmental factor, coupled with uncertainty, which leads to hierarchy or vertical integration. Asset specificity actually represents specialization of assets with respect to use or user. It appears when one or both parties to the transaction invest in equipment, which has been designed especially to perform the transaction and has lower value when used for other purpose. Williamson (1985) states that spot markets will probably fail under the condition of asset specificity. This occurs because party making transaction-specific investments, and for whom the costs of switching partners are consequently high, will fear that one flexible party will opportunistically renegotiate the terms of trade. Asset specificity as a determinant of vertical integration is crucial in relation to given conditions of bounded rationality, opportunism and uncertainty. Asset specificity is the big locomotive to which transaction cost economies owes much of its predictive content. Its neglect is largely responsible for the monopoly preoccupation of earlier contract traditions (Williamson 1985: 54-56). One of the gurus of theory on multinational enterprises is certainly Richard Caves. Caves (1971, 1982) presumed that founding of subsidiary by a multinational enterprise amounts to entry into one national market by a going enterprise based on another geographic market. One possibility of entry is horizontal expansion, when a subsidiary produces the same type of product as the parent company. Other type of entry is vertical expansion or integration across national boundaries either backward to produce raw materials or intermediate products used in its home operations or forward to provide a distribution channel for its exports (Caves 1974a, 117). Additionally, Caves assumed that foreign direct investment appears mostly in industries characterized by certain market structures in both home or host countries. He concludes that differentiated oligopoly prevails mostly in the case when companies opt for horizontal expansion. On the other hand, oligopoly, not necessarily differentiated, in the home market is typical in industries which undertake vertical expansion across national boundaries. Direct investment tends to involve market conduct that extends the recognition of mutual market dependence the essence of oligopoly beyond national boundaries (Caves 1971:1). Additionally, in order to explain the presence of multinational companies, Caves distinguished and explained three types of multiplant companies horizontally integrated company which produces the same line of products from its plants in each geographic market, vertically integrated, which produces outputs in some of the plants that serve as inputs for other plants, and finally a diversified company whose plants outputs are neither horizontally nor vertically related to one another (Caves 1982a:2). With his theory of international operations, Hymer (1960, 1976) emphasized two major causes of international operations: exploitation of oligopolistic advantages and suspension of conflicts between companies in order to strengthen market power by means of collusion. Therefore, Hymer states the following: It frequently happens that enterprises in different countries compete with each other because they sell in the same market or because some of the firms sell to other firms. If the markets are imperfect, that is, if horizontal or bilateral monopoly or oligopoly, some form of collusion will be profitable. One form of collusion is to have the various enterprises owned and controlled by one firm. This is one motivation for firms to control enterprises in foreign countries (Hymer 1976:25). Furthermore, he states that FDI could not be explained as if it were portfolio investments that is, inter country movements of capital responding to differential rates of return on capital. If this direct investment is motivated by a desire to earn higher interest rates abroad, this practice of borrowing substantially abroad seems strange(Hymer 1976:13). Hymer emphasized that international operations type of investment does not depend on the interest rate. The direct investor is motivated by profits that are obtained from controlling the foreign enterprise, not by higher interest rates abroad (Hymer 1976: 26-30). He suggested that direct investments are the capital movements associated with the international operations of companies. According to him there are several types of motivation. The underlying motivation for controlling the foreign enterprise is to eliminate competition between that foreign enterprise and enterprises in other countries, and to form a profitable collusion among them. Another motivation is control which is desired in order to appropriate completely the returns on certain skills and abilities. The other motivation arises from the fact that a firm with advantages over other firms in production of a particular product may find it profitable to undertake the production of this product in a foreign country as well (Hymer 1976: 25-26). Another contribution which is even more fundamental made by Hymer, was to argue for the link between market failure and FDI. Hymer pioneered an oligopolistic theory of the growth of production networks across national boundaries, through collusion and exploitation of ownership advantages in a market power context, instead of a location theory context. The market power school of thought pursues that internationalization lowers the extent of competition and increases collusion among firms, in general (Cantwell 1991a:30). Due to their relative abundance of capital but scarcity of labor, traditional neo-classical economics assumes that countries which are economically developed have low profit or interest rates but high wage rates prior to international operations. Therefore, capital intensive goods go from economically developed countries to less developed labor abundant countries. There can also be a tendency for capital rich countries to export capital directly through foreign direct investment in developing countries. In the same manner, economists that belong to the Marxist school of thought, advocate the idea that there is a tendency for the rate of profit to decline in capital rich countries, due to the intensity of competition. Consequently, foreign investment in less developed or underdeveloped countries serves as an outlet for surplus capital (Cantwell in Pitelis and Sygden 1991:20). Recent historical data, however, reveal a trend which challenges stipulations of the traditional neo-classical and Marxist theories. Before 1939, imperialistic and colonial influences have been determining factors which influenced international trade and investment between hegemonic countries and developing countries. Similar trade and investment patterns prevailed in 1950s, but the trend started to change in the past few decades. In 1950, around three fifths of manufacturing exports from Europe, North America or Japan were directed to the developing countries across the world, but by 1971, only just over one third (Armstrong et al., 1984:251). Additionally, Dunning (1983b:88) acknowledged that two thirds of the worlds stock of FDI was located in developing countries in 1938. This amount has fallen to just little over a quarter by 1970s (cited by Cantwell in Pitelis Sugden 1991:20). During 1980s and 1990s significant capital mobility among developed countries overshadowed foreign direct investment in the developing countries. Mergers and acquisitions were the main trade mark of multinational production activities across the industrialized world during this period. At the time, in the developing world FDI have been characterized by joint ventures, privatization ventures and pioneering projects in the field of manufacturing and infrastructure (World Economic Forum 1997:28). During the 1990s, economically developed countries were still the most favorable destination of FDIs. However, this period has been significant since a large flow of capital invaded emerging markets, especially the ones in Asia where incentives for foreign investments have been extremely attractive. China, for instance, received $42.3 billion in 1996, which accounted for 38 percent of total FDI flows to the emerging markets in that year. Additionally, other emerging markets in Asia, such as Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand became increasingly significant recipients of foreign direct investment (World Economic Forum 1997:28-30). On a macroeconomic level, different approaches have been developed in order to explain cross-border activities of multinational companies. The most important ones are the following: the product cycle model by Vernon (1966), trade and direct foreign investment model of Kojima (1978), location theories of the division of labor as analysed by Buckley and Casson (1976), Casson (1979,1986), Casson et al. (1986) and Buckley (1988), investment-development cycle advanced by Dunning (1982), stages of development approach by Cantwell and Tolentino (1987) and the eclectic paradigm by Dunning (1977, 1981, 1988, 1993a, 1995a, 1995b). Product cycle model, as defined by Vernon (1966) represents a combination of a three-stage theory of innovation, growth and maturing of a new product with the RD factor theory (Kojima 1978:61). The latter theory presumes where a new product or technology is most likely to be created. In this new phase stage, design of the product is often being changed and therefore, its production is technologically unstable and the market is not enough acquainted with the product. Consequently, the sales will not grow rapidly and the demand for the product will remain price-inelastic. In this phase, research and development activities of scientists and technicians are of crucial importance for the introduction of inventions and changes in design. Theoretically, the introduction of the RD factor in the product cycle theory represents the addition of a factor of production to the conventional two-commodity, two-factor model. If this approach is accepted, it follows that one may add new factors of production one by one in a similar manner. At the growth phase which comes after the first one, sales of products increase. Mass production and bulk sales methods are introduced. At the same time, entries in the industry increase and competition grows among producers. Demand becomes price-elastic and therefore, sales of each firm become more responsive to the price. Under these circumstances, the realization of economies of scale and managerial ability of the company play important role (Kojima 1978: 62). Finally, when the mature phase is reached, the product becomes standardized and its production technologically stabile. Instead of the crucial role that is played by research and development activities or managerial abilities in the new-phase stage and growth stage, unskilled and semi-skilled labor become important. Therefore, through foreign investment production location is being directed to low-wage, developing countries. The expenses of marketing or exporting the product from these countries may be lower compared to other commodities, since the commodity is standardized. Kojima (1978) gave several comments on Vernons product cycle theory. Firstly, the theory is not founded on the principle of comparative costs. Vernon himself elaborates that his theory discusses one promising line of generalization and synthesis, which appears to have been neglected by the main stream of trade theory. It does not stress the comparative cost doctrine but instead emphasizes more the timing of innovation, the effects of scale of economies, and the roles of ignorance and uncertainty in influencing trade patterns. Secondly, this theory tries to explain the location of production of one commodity by a firm growing through monopolistic or oligopolistic behavior (Kojima 1978:63). Kojima (1978) suggested the so-called trade and deficit foreign investment theory as an alternative approach to the study of multinationals. Furthermore, he suggested that foreign direct investment should complement comparative advantage patterns in different countries. Such advantage has to originate from the comparatively disadvantaged industry of the source country, which leads to lower-cost and expanded volume of exports from the host country. Significant criticism of Kojima`s theory is the manner in which import-substituting investments are referred to as anti-trade oriented. While import-substituting investments could be considered as anti-trade oriented at the microeconomic level, they are not anti-trade oriented at the macroeconomic level. In fact, an increasing level of exports usually follows the growth of FDI from USA, Germany and Japan. There are proofs which suggest that export-oriented investments may have a less significant impact in industrial adjustment or in increasing the welfare of the host country since these investments are likely to be an enclave kind (Dunning and Cantwell 1990 as cited in Tolentino 1993:51). Rugman (1981:47) suggested his main objection with Kojima`s analysis is that it is set in the static framework of trade theory, meaning that his model requires perfect markets. It is obviously a mistake to observe technology as a homogenous product over time and to ignore the dynamic nature of the technology cycle. It is probable that the United States have a comparative advantage, not in technology itself but in the generation of new knowledge. Consequently, it is feasible for US FDI in technology to take place to secure new markets on a continuous basis, as successive stages of the technology cycle are used, firstly in domestic markets and than in foreign ones. Dunning (1982, 1986) contributed to the investment-development cycle model with his suggestion that the level of inward and outward investment of different countries, and the balance of the two, is a function of their stage of development as measured by GNP (gross national product) per capita. After threshold phase of development, outward investment increases for countries at yet higher levels of development. The balance between inward and outward investment in developed countries results in the return of their net outward investment to zero. The continued growth of their outward investment at a later phase results in a positive net outward investment (NOI). Tolentino(1993) offered empirical evidence for the period since the mid-1970s which imply that the existence of a structural change in the relationship between NOI and the countrys relative stage of development as a consequence of the general rise in the internationalization of firms from countries at lower stages of development. The growth of newer multinationals from Japan, Germany and smaller developed countries, as well as some of the richer developing economies, implies their firms` capacity to follow the earlier outward multinational expansion of the traditional source countries, the USA and the UK, at a much earlier stage of their national development. The enhanced significance of outward investments from these newer source countries enables firm evidence of the general trend towards internationalization do that the national stage development no longer becomes a good predictor of a countrys overall net outward investment position. Cantwell and Tolentino (1987) suggested the stages of development approach to the study of multinationals. They posed a hypothesis that the character and composition of outward direct investment changes as development proceeds. Additionally, the say the following: Countries` outward direct investment generally follows a developmental or evolutionary course over time which is initially predominant in resource-based or simple forms of manufacturing production which embody limited technological requirements in the earlier stages of development and then evolve towards more technologically sophisticated forms of manufacturing investments. The developmental course of the most recent outward investors from the Third World has been faster and has a distinctive technological nature compared to the more mature multinationals from Europe, USA and Japan, owing to the different stages of their national development. Dunning (1977, 1981, 1988, 1993a, 1995a, 1995b) and his eclectic paradigm tends to explain the ability and willingness of companies to serve markets across national borders. Furthermore, the eclectic paradigm attempts to elaborate why they opt for the exploitation of any available advantages through foreign production instead of using domestic production, exports or portfolio resource flows. He hypothesized that a company will go for international production or engage in foreign direct investment if it owns net ownership advantages (mostly in the form of intangible assets) vis-Ã  -vis firms of other nationalities in serving particular markets. These ownership advantages, accompanied by internalization and location possibilities, will enable a company to benefit when using or internalizing a particular foreign market itself, instead of selling, renting or leasing them to foreign companies. Location possibility in this context means locating a multinational firms production activity in a foreign country that possesses competitive advantages in terms of factor endowments. If these three conditions (ownership, location and internalization) are not present, the firm can instead serve its local market through domestic production and expand it to serve foreign markets through international trade. The bigger the ownership advantages of multinational companies, the more incentive they have to use these themselves. The more the economics of production and marketing favor a foreign location, the more they are likely to engage in foreign direct investment. The propensity of a particular country to engage in international production is then dependent of the extent to which its enterprises possess these advantages and the location attractions of its endowments compared with those offered by other countries (Dunning 1981:79). According to Dunning eclectic paradigm is perhaps, the dominant paradigm of international production. It presumes ownership specific advantages as endogenous variables, i.e. to be a determinant of foreign production. This means that the paradigm is not only involved with answering the question of why firms go for FDI, in preference to other modes of cross-border transactions. It is also concerned with why these firms possess unique resources and competencies relative to their competitors or other nationalities and why they choose to use at least some of these advantages together with portfolio of foreign-based immobile assets. This makes it different from the internalization model, which regards ownership advantages as exogenous variables (Dunning, 1993a:252). As perceived by Dunning, the eclectic paradigm is meant to capture all approaches to the study of international production. In his opinion the model represents a good starting point to discover the global explanation of MNE`s existence and growth since it synthesizes the explanations of the existence and nature of international production. Dunning states that his eclectic paradigm can give an adequate analytical framework which enables understanding of all kinds of foreign production in services. Stressing the interdependence between services and goods industries, he asserts that it makes no sense to try to develop a new paradigm to explain the transnationality of the service sector (Dunning 1993a:248-284). In his scholarly research, Dunning was assertive to find all possible explanations of the existence of multinational enterprise in his eclectic paradigm. As the years went by, he tried to expand knowledge in the framework of his eclectic paradigm by attempting to accommodate possible additional explanations to multinational production activity that come to his knowledge. As an example, for instance, he argues that the advent of collaborative alliances among multinational firms does not lead to the development of a new multinational theory. Therefore, he has incorporated alliance capitalism in his model. In his renewed version of the eclectic paradigm in the light of alliance capitalism, Dunning(1995a) considers that inter-firm alliances (with clear reference to American multinationals) in innovation-led production systems are emerging as dominant forms of market-based capitalism, and are overtaking the global influence of hierarchical capitalism. Dunning has focused on the narrow view of the value-adding activity of innovation-led capitalism, and has considered other joint ventures, not wholly owned production operations, dominate the multinational enterprise involvement in less developed countries (Vaupel and Curhan 1973). Both in theory or in practice, internalizing a foreign market and going for a joint venture alliance with a foreign partner are just two possible options that a multinational company can choose in international business activities. Therefore, alliance as a strategy can be the dependent variable, just like international production, that needs further explanations. Explanations to joint ventures overseas could also include ownership, location and internalization considerations. Border lines between the three levels of economic analysis microeconomic, mesoeconomic and macroeconomic have to be neglected in order to synthesize the various economic approaches to the research of multinationals. Modern economic explanations of cross-border production activities of multinational firms are mostly reflected in the configuration of ownership, internalization and location advantages. Dunning has integrated those three fractions under the wing of his eclectic paradigm, but his primary objective in doing so is still to find eclectic explanations to the phenomenon of international production. Despite the differences in academic specialism, perspectives and objectives of economists who pursued the study of the existence of multinational companies and made significant contributions this field, they have one thing in common: they all targeted the explanation of the phenomenon of international production activity across national boundaries. 2.1.3. Strategic Management Approa

Mary Shelleys Frankenstein as a Critique of Masculinity Essay

Introduction The idea for the novel of Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein came to her one night when she was staying in the company of what has been called ‘her male coterie’, including Lord Byron and her husband, Percy Shelley. Mary Shelley’s whole life seems to have been heavily influenced by men. She idolised her father, William Godwyn, and appears to have spent a good part of her life trying very hard to impress both him and her husband. There seems to have been a distinct lack of female influence, her mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, having died weeks after her birth, being replaced by a neglectful step-mother. These aspects of her life are perhaps evident in her novel. The characters and plot of Frankenstein were perhaps influenced by Shelley’s conflicting feelings about the predominately masculine circle which surrounded her, and perhaps the many masculine traits that we see in novel were based upon those of the male figures in Shelley’s own life. In th is essay I will attempt to show some of these traits. Argument Perhaps the most obvious way we can read the novel as a critique of masculinity is the very obvious way in which Shelley develops the male characters more than she does the female. She portrays the male characters as the stronger sex with the female characters seemingly completely dependant on the male, and their whole lives seem to be taken up by the males every move. The female characters in the novel ar every much idealised figures of perfection and passiveness. She portrays women as weak, beautiful, subservient beings who live only for the men in their lives. This is evident from the opening sentence of the narrator of the novel, Walton, who is writing to his sister in England while he is on an expedit... ...e life that he is creating is undeniably male, as this is the sex he views as the stronger of the two, there is never a question for a moment that he may create a female. Conclusion The theme of masculinity is strong throughout the novel, and I will finish with what may be the strongest example of masculinity of all, although it is not a favourable one. Perhaps the character of the monster represents the flaw in masculinity in the society of that day, created without the use of a woman, and is an example of the dangers of a society without woman. And I feel that Shelley was perhaps manipulating the masculine identities in the novel to show the flaws that such attitudes towards women can create, and persuade her audience that a society without women would be disastrous. Bibliography Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, (Berkshire: Penguin Popular Classics, 1994)

Allen Ginsberg Essay -- Biography Bio Poet

Allen Ginsberg, Covert Patriot Allen Ginsberg is, without a doubt, most famous for his poem "Howl" which he published in October of 1956 through City Lights Books in San Francisco. "Howl", like much of his other poetry, is an intensely personal and also very complex poetic expression lacking rhyme and, to many people, also lacking reason. In actuality, however, "Howl" serves as an autobiographical sketch and it acts, in some ways, as a precursor to his lesser known poem from the same publication, "America," which is his final articulation of his love for his country and his disillusionment with its current state of affairs. Together, both of these poems form a culmination (as of 1956) of the journals he had been keeping throughout his life and are the final "howl" of the simultaneous love and discontent with his situation as well as that of his country. Through "Howl" and "America" Ginsberg is expressing his disillusionment with American culture and his own life by retelling his own life experiences; however, he i s also demonstrating a love of America and American culture that he has held throughout his life and which he, finally, was able to put down in poetic verse in his compilation Howl and Other Poems. From a very early age, Ginsberg's life was chaotic, and that, in turn, produced a disenchanted view of society. His parents were both extremely politically active and were not in political agreement. As a result politics was a subject to which he became accustomed rather early because his mother, Naomi, was a member of the Communist part and his father, Louis, was a Democratic Socialist (Miles 6). Naomi and Louis fought often about politics and the situation, no doubt, left Ginsberg both passionate and confused about poli... ...sberg as a cynic, it is crucial to remember that, both as a poet and as a person, he is much more complex, as is his view of the country. Ginsberg was not anti-American, he loved a great deal about America and felt awful about its situation in the 1950s. Ginsberg was simply another man who wanted change. References Caveney, Graham. Screaming with Joy: the Life of Allen Ginsberg. New York: Broadway Books, 1999. Foster, Edward Halsey. Understanding the Beats. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992. Ginsberg, Allen. Howl and Other Poems. 57th printing San Francisco: City Light Books, 2001. ---. Journals Mid-Fifties 1954-1958. Gordon, Ball Ed. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1995. Merrill, Thomas F. Allen Ginsberg: Revised Edition. Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1988. Miles, Barry. Ginsberg: A Biography. London: Virgin Publishing Ltd., 2000.